Establishment of medical education upon internalization of virtue ethics: bridging the gap between theory and practice
Abstract
During medical training, students obtain enough skills and knowledge. However, medical ethics accomplishes its goals when, together with training medical courses, it guides students behavior towards morality so that ethics-oriented medical practice is internalized. Medical ethics is a branch of applied ethics which tries to introduce ethics into physicians’ practice and ethical decisions; thus, it necessitates the behavior to be ethical. Therefore, when students are being trained, they need to be supplied with those guidelines which turn ethical instructions into practice to the extent possible. The current text discusses the narrowing of the gap between ethical theory and practice, especially in the field of medical education.
The current study was composed using analytical review procedures. Thus, classical ethics philosophy, psychology books, and related articles were used to select the relevant pieces of information about internalizing behavior and medical education. The aim of the present study was to propose a theory by analyzing the related articles and books.
The attempt to fill the gap between medical theory and practice using external factors such as law has been faced with a great deal of limitations. Accordingly, the present article tries to investigate how and why medical training must take internalizing ethical instructions into consideration, and indicate the importance of influential internal factors.
Virtue-centered education, education of moral emotions, changing and strengthening of attitudes through education, and the wise use of administrative regulations can be an effective way of teaching ethical practice in medicine.
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2. Javadi M, Sayadnezhad AR. Akrasia in Aristotle's ethics. Journal of Religious Thought. 2009; 32: 1-28. [in Persian]
3. Khazaei Z. Applied ethics: its nature, methods and related challenges. Philosophical-Theological Research. 2007; 9(1): 175- 204. [in Persian]
4. Larijani B. [Pezeshk va Molahezate Akhlaghi]. Tehran: Baraye Farad; 2003, Vol.1, p.8-17. [in Persian]
5. Orbuch TL, Cohen BJ. Introduction to Sociology, 1sted. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1990: 3-6, p.52-72.
6. Anonymous. Faculty of medicine /affiliated institutions guidelines for ethics & professionalism in healthcare professional clinical training and teaching. http://medicine.utoronto.ca/sites/default/files/ethics2_0.pdf (accessed on 2017).
7. Larijani B. [Negareshi bar Akhlagh Pezeshki Novin]. Hawzah va Pajoohesh. 2004; (17, 18): 47-59. [in Persian]
8. Tabei SZ, Molavi P, Kaghazian H. Principles of bioethics, 1st ed. Tehran: Hayyan Press; 2007, p.47-8. [in Persian]
9. Engel GL. The clinical application of the biopsychosocial model. Am J Psychiatry.1980; 137(5): 535-44.
10. Rafiean S. Medical ethics and its intellectual framework. Iran J Med Ethics Hist Med. 2009; 2(1): 7-14. [in Persian]
11. Von Foerster H. Ethics and second-order. Cybernetics & Human Knowing. 1992; 1(1): 9-20.
12. Have H.T. Clinical Ethics. Netherlands: Springer; 2005, Vol.26, p.75-97.
13. Larijani B, Zahedi F, Emami Razavi S. Medical ethics history in Iran. Iran J Diabetes Metabolism. 2006; 6(2): 113-24.[in Persian]
14. Tannert C, Elvers HD, Jandrig B. The ethics of uncertainty. in the light of possible dangers, research becomes a moral duty. EMBO Rep. 2007; 8(10): 892-6.
15. Harung HS. More effective decisions through synergy of objective and subjective approaches. Management Decision. 1993; 31(7): 38-45.
16. Khatri N, Ng HA. The role of intuition in strategic decision-making. Human Relations. 2000; 53(1): 57–86.
17. Myyry L. Components of morality: A professional ethics perspective on moral motivation, moral sensitivity, moral reasoning and related constructs among university students.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/28373806_Component_of_morality_A_professional_ethics_perspective_on_moral_motivation_moral_sensitivity_moral_reasoning_and_related_constructs_among_university_students (accessed on 2016).
18. Kuczynski L, Navara GS. Handbook of Moral Development. USA: Psychology Press; 2005, p. 299-330.
19. Matsumoto D. The Cambridge Dictionary of Psychology. New York: Cambridge University Press; 2009, p.262.
20. Statt DA. The Concise Dictionary of Psychology. 3rded, London and New York: Routledge; 1998, p.74.
21. Karimzadeh S. The psychological mechanisms of internalizing moral values. Ravanshenasi Va Din. 2010; 3(2): 5-28. [in Persian]
22. Smith EE, Nolen-Hoeksema S, Fredrickson BL, Loftus G. Atkinson and Hilgard's Introduction to Psychology, 14th ed. Pacific Grove, CA: Wadsworth; 2003, p.626-732.
23. Bohner G, Wanke M. Attitudes and attitude change. Annu Rev Psychol. 2011; 62: 391-417.
24. Dunbar WS. Emotional engagement in professional ethics. Sci Eng Ethics. 2005; 11(4): 535-51.
25. Doka K, Rushton CH, Thorstenson TA. Health Care Ethics Forum '94. Caregiver distress: if it is so ethical, why does it feel so bad? AACN Clin Issues Crit Care Nurs. 1994; 5(3): 346-52.
26. Callahan S. The role of emotion in ethical decision making. Hastings Cent Rep. 1988; 18(3): 9-14.
27. Sheidan sheid H. [Aghl dar akhlagh az nazargah Ghazali va Hume]. Qom: Pajuheshgah Hoze va Daneshgah; 2004, p.243.[in Persian]
28. Hume D. An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Moral. New York: Oxford University Press; 1998, p. 28.
29. Mencl J, May DR. The effects of proximity and empathy on ethical decision-making: An exploratory investigation. Journal of Business Ethics. 2009; 85(2): 201–26.
30. Bonvicini KA, Perlin MJ, Bylund CL, Carroll G, Rouse RA, Goldstein MG. Impact of communication training on physician expression of empathy in patient encounters. Patient Educ Couns. 2009; 75(1):3-10.
31. Greene JD, Sommerville RB, Nystrom LE, Darley JM, Cohen JD. An fMRI investigation of emotional engagement in moral judgment. Science. 2001; 293(5537): 2105-8.
32. Zhong CB. The ethical dangers of rational decision making. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/cafb/bd3633ef13df42871105e14dd7d0b83460c0.pdf (accessed on 2016).
33. Damasio AR. The somatic marker hypothesis and the possible functions of the prefrontal cortex. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 1996; 351(1346): 1413-20.
34. Bechara, A, Damasio H, Damasio AR. Emotion, decision making and the orbitofrontal cortex. Cereb Cortex. 2000; 10(3): 295-307.
35. Khazaei Z, Madani E. Ethical decision making. Qom: Qom University Publications; 2010, p.73. [in Persian]
36. Shoarinejad AA. [Ravanshenasi Omomi]. Tehran: Toos Publication; 1984, p.446-7. [in Persian]
37. Ja’fari Tabrizi MT. [Tarjomeh va Tafsir Nahj-al-Balagha]. Tehran: The Publication Office of Islamic Culture; 1997, Vol.6, p.122. [in Persian]
38. Khodapanahi MK. Motivation and Emotion, 3rd ed. Tehran: Samt; 2002, p.211. [in Persian]
39. Ashby FG, Isen AM, Turken AU. A neoropsychological theory of positive affect and its influence on cognition. Psychol Rev. 1999; 106(3): 529-50.
40. Isen AM. Positive affect, systematic cognitive processing, and behavior: Toward integration of affect, cognition, and motivation. Research in Multi-Level Issues. 2003; 2: 55-62.
41. Hojat M, Gonnella JS, Mangione S, Nasca TJ, Magee M. Physician empathy in medical education and practice: experience with the Jefferson Scale of Physician Empathy. Seminars in Integrative Medicine. 2003; 1(1): 25–41.
42. Henry-Tillman R, Deloney LA, Savidge M, Graham CJ, Klimberg VS. The medical student as patient navigator as an approach to teaching empathy. Am J Surg. 2002; 183(6): 659-62.
43. Johnson CE. Meeting the Ethical Challenges of Leadership: Casting Light or Shadow, 4th ed. USA: SAGE Publications; 2011, p.245-6.
44. Johnson CE. Organizational Ethics: a Practical Approach, 2nd ed. USA: SAGE Publication; 2012, p.72.
45. Naraqi MM. [Jami-Al-Sa’adat], 1st ed. Qom: Esmailian Publishing Company; 2004, Vol.1, p.22. [in Arabic]
46. Maskawaih AA. [Tahzib Al-akhlaq va Tathir Al-a’araq]. Qom: Bidar; 1994, p.51. [in Arabic]
47. Campion B. Virtue ethics and health care ethics: part1: the good doctor. Bioethics Matters. 2011; 9(2):1-4.
48. Sim J. Ethical Decision Making in Therapy Practice. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann; 1997, p.31.
49. Walker RL. Virtue ethics and medicine. Lahey Clinic Journal of Medical Ethics. 2010; 17(3): 2-8.
50. Koller P. Law, Morality, and Virtue. Working Virtue: Virtue Ethics and Contemporary Moral Problems. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2007, p.191-205.
51. Pojman L. Ethics: Discovering Right and Wrong, 3rd ed. USA: Wadsworth; 1999, p.166-75.
52. Khazaei Z. Virtue Ethics. Tehran: Hekmat Press; 2011,p.73.[in Persian]
53. Khazaei Z. Virtue ethics. Nameh-ye-Mofid. 2001; 7(4): 41-64. [in Persian]
54. Sadeghi M. [Barrasy se didgah akhlagh mobtani bar fazilat, akhlagh mobtani bar amal va akhlagh mokamel]. Nameh-ye-Mofid. 2002; 28: 15-26. [in Persian]
55. Frankena WK. Ethics, 2nd ed. USA: Prentice-Hall; 1988, p.65.
56. Hanson SS. Moral Acquaintances and Moral Decision: Resolving Moral Conflict in Medical Ethics. Dordrecht: Springer; 2009, p.102-6.
57. Fletcher J. Situation Ethics: The New Morality. USA: Westminster John Knox Press; 1966, p.17.
58. Graber GC. Basic Theories in Medical Ethics. Health Care Ethics: Critical Issues for the 21st Century. USA: Jones and Bartlett publishers; 2004, p.523.
59. Magundayao JAM. Dispositions and skills: An argument for virtue ethics against situationism. Kritike: An Online Journal of Philosophy. 2013; 7(1): 96-114.
60. Benner P. A dialogue between virtue ethics and care ethics. Theor Med. 1997; 18(1-2): 47-61.
61. Gilligan C. In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women's Development, 2nd ed. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press; 1982.
62. Noddings N. Caring: A Feminine Approach to Ethics and Moral Education, 2nd ed. California: University of California Press; 2003.
63. Eckles RE, Meslin EM, Gaffney M, Helft PR. Medical ethics education: Where are we? Where should we be going? A review. Acad Med. 2005; 80(12): 1143-52
64. Pellegrino ED, Thomasma DC. The Virtues in Medical Practice. USA: Oxford University Press; 1993, p.176- 80.
65. Razzaghi H. [Negaresh v Iman dar tarbiat dini]. Tehran: Imam Khomeini institute for Research and Education; 2008, p.30. [in Persian]
66. Bedard L, Deziel J, Lamarche L. Social Psychology. Translated by Ganji H. Tehran: Savalan Publications; 2010, p.88-120. [in Persian]
67. Gruber PC, Gomersall CD, Joynt GM, et al. Changes in medical students’ attitudes towards End-of-Life decisions across different years of medical training. J Gen Intern Med. 2008; 23(10):1608-14.
68. Carter DD. Using attitude surveys in medical ethics research and teaching: the example of undergraduate willingness to treat HIV-infected patients. Med Educ. 1998; 32(2):121-6.
69. Schreiner U, Haefner A, Gologan R, Obertacke U. Effective teaching modifies medical student attitudes toward pain Symptoms. Eur J Trauma Emerg Surg. 2011; 37(6): 655–9.
70. Yedidia MJ, Berry CA. The impact of residency training on physicians' AIDS-related treatment practices: a longitudinal
panel study. Acad Med. 1999; 74(5): 532 -8
71. Akbarian SM. The theory of faith for stopping the gap between knowledge and faith. Pazhuhesh Name-e Akhlaq. 2012; 5(17): 101-20. [in Persian]
72. Vejdani F, Imani M, Akbarian R, Sadeqzadeh A. An analytical study on the gap between theory and action in Allamah Tabatabaei. Pazhuhesh Name-e Akhlaq. 2013; 5(18):7-25.[in Persian]
73. Niebuhr R. Moral man and immoral society: a study in ethics and politics. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons; 1932:4-9.
74. Kadivar P. Psychology of Morality. Tehran: Agah Publication; 2010:86-8. [in Persian]
2. Javadi M, Sayadnezhad AR. Akrasia in Aristotle's ethics. Journal of Religious Thought. 2009; 32: 1-28. [in Persian]
3. Khazaei Z. Applied ethics: its nature, methods and related challenges. Philosophical-Theological Research. 2007; 9(1): 175- 204. [in Persian]
4. Larijani B. [Pezeshk va Molahezate Akhlaghi]. Tehran: Baraye Farad; 2003, Vol.1, p.8-17. [in Persian]
5. Orbuch TL, Cohen BJ. Introduction to Sociology, 1sted. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1990: 3-6, p.52-72.
6. Anonymous. Faculty of medicine /affiliated institutions guidelines for ethics & professionalism in healthcare professional clinical training and teaching. http://medicine.utoronto.ca/sites/default/files/ethics2_0.pdf (accessed on 2017).
7. Larijani B. [Negareshi bar Akhlagh Pezeshki Novin]. Hawzah va Pajoohesh. 2004; (17, 18): 47-59. [in Persian]
8. Tabei SZ, Molavi P, Kaghazian H. Principles of bioethics, 1st ed. Tehran: Hayyan Press; 2007, p.47-8. [in Persian]
9. Engel GL. The clinical application of the biopsychosocial model. Am J Psychiatry.1980; 137(5): 535-44.
10. Rafiean S. Medical ethics and its intellectual framework. Iran J Med Ethics Hist Med. 2009; 2(1): 7-14. [in Persian]
11. Von Foerster H. Ethics and second-order. Cybernetics & Human Knowing. 1992; 1(1): 9-20.
12. Have H.T. Clinical Ethics. Netherlands: Springer; 2005, Vol.26, p.75-97.
13. Larijani B, Zahedi F, Emami Razavi S. Medical ethics history in Iran. Iran J Diabetes Metabolism. 2006; 6(2): 113-24.[in Persian]
14. Tannert C, Elvers HD, Jandrig B. The ethics of uncertainty. in the light of possible dangers, research becomes a moral duty. EMBO Rep. 2007; 8(10): 892-6.
15. Harung HS. More effective decisions through synergy of objective and subjective approaches. Management Decision. 1993; 31(7): 38-45.
16. Khatri N, Ng HA. The role of intuition in strategic decision-making. Human Relations. 2000; 53(1): 57–86.
17. Myyry L. Components of morality: A professional ethics perspective on moral motivation, moral sensitivity, moral reasoning and related constructs among university students.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/28373806_Component_of_morality_A_professional_ethics_perspective_on_moral_motivation_moral_sensitivity_moral_reasoning_and_related_constructs_among_university_students (accessed on 2016).
18. Kuczynski L, Navara GS. Handbook of Moral Development. USA: Psychology Press; 2005, p. 299-330.
19. Matsumoto D. The Cambridge Dictionary of Psychology. New York: Cambridge University Press; 2009, p.262.
20. Statt DA. The Concise Dictionary of Psychology. 3rded, London and New York: Routledge; 1998, p.74.
21. Karimzadeh S. The psychological mechanisms of internalizing moral values. Ravanshenasi Va Din. 2010; 3(2): 5-28. [in Persian]
22. Smith EE, Nolen-Hoeksema S, Fredrickson BL, Loftus G. Atkinson and Hilgard's Introduction to Psychology, 14th ed. Pacific Grove, CA: Wadsworth; 2003, p.626-732.
23. Bohner G, Wanke M. Attitudes and attitude change. Annu Rev Psychol. 2011; 62: 391-417.
24. Dunbar WS. Emotional engagement in professional ethics. Sci Eng Ethics. 2005; 11(4): 535-51.
25. Doka K, Rushton CH, Thorstenson TA. Health Care Ethics Forum '94. Caregiver distress: if it is so ethical, why does it feel so bad? AACN Clin Issues Crit Care Nurs. 1994; 5(3): 346-52.
26. Callahan S. The role of emotion in ethical decision making. Hastings Cent Rep. 1988; 18(3): 9-14.
27. Sheidan sheid H. [Aghl dar akhlagh az nazargah Ghazali va Hume]. Qom: Pajuheshgah Hoze va Daneshgah; 2004, p.243.[in Persian]
28. Hume D. An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Moral. New York: Oxford University Press; 1998, p. 28.
29. Mencl J, May DR. The effects of proximity and empathy on ethical decision-making: An exploratory investigation. Journal of Business Ethics. 2009; 85(2): 201–26.
30. Bonvicini KA, Perlin MJ, Bylund CL, Carroll G, Rouse RA, Goldstein MG. Impact of communication training on physician expression of empathy in patient encounters. Patient Educ Couns. 2009; 75(1):3-10.
31. Greene JD, Sommerville RB, Nystrom LE, Darley JM, Cohen JD. An fMRI investigation of emotional engagement in moral judgment. Science. 2001; 293(5537): 2105-8.
32. Zhong CB. The ethical dangers of rational decision making. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/cafb/bd3633ef13df42871105e14dd7d0b83460c0.pdf (accessed on 2016).
33. Damasio AR. The somatic marker hypothesis and the possible functions of the prefrontal cortex. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 1996; 351(1346): 1413-20.
34. Bechara, A, Damasio H, Damasio AR. Emotion, decision making and the orbitofrontal cortex. Cereb Cortex. 2000; 10(3): 295-307.
35. Khazaei Z, Madani E. Ethical decision making. Qom: Qom University Publications; 2010, p.73. [in Persian]
36. Shoarinejad AA. [Ravanshenasi Omomi]. Tehran: Toos Publication; 1984, p.446-7. [in Persian]
37. Ja’fari Tabrizi MT. [Tarjomeh va Tafsir Nahj-al-Balagha]. Tehran: The Publication Office of Islamic Culture; 1997, Vol.6, p.122. [in Persian]
38. Khodapanahi MK. Motivation and Emotion, 3rd ed. Tehran: Samt; 2002, p.211. [in Persian]
39. Ashby FG, Isen AM, Turken AU. A neoropsychological theory of positive affect and its influence on cognition. Psychol Rev. 1999; 106(3): 529-50.
40. Isen AM. Positive affect, systematic cognitive processing, and behavior: Toward integration of affect, cognition, and motivation. Research in Multi-Level Issues. 2003; 2: 55-62.
41. Hojat M, Gonnella JS, Mangione S, Nasca TJ, Magee M. Physician empathy in medical education and practice: experience with the Jefferson Scale of Physician Empathy. Seminars in Integrative Medicine. 2003; 1(1): 25–41.
42. Henry-Tillman R, Deloney LA, Savidge M, Graham CJ, Klimberg VS. The medical student as patient navigator as an approach to teaching empathy. Am J Surg. 2002; 183(6): 659-62.
43. Johnson CE. Meeting the Ethical Challenges of Leadership: Casting Light or Shadow, 4th ed. USA: SAGE Publications; 2011, p.245-6.
44. Johnson CE. Organizational Ethics: a Practical Approach, 2nd ed. USA: SAGE Publication; 2012, p.72.
45. Naraqi MM. [Jami-Al-Sa’adat], 1st ed. Qom: Esmailian Publishing Company; 2004, Vol.1, p.22. [in Arabic]
46. Maskawaih AA. [Tahzib Al-akhlaq va Tathir Al-a’araq]. Qom: Bidar; 1994, p.51. [in Arabic]
47. Campion B. Virtue ethics and health care ethics: part1: the good doctor. Bioethics Matters. 2011; 9(2):1-4.
48. Sim J. Ethical Decision Making in Therapy Practice. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann; 1997, p.31.
49. Walker RL. Virtue ethics and medicine. Lahey Clinic Journal of Medical Ethics. 2010; 17(3): 2-8.
50. Koller P. Law, Morality, and Virtue. Working Virtue: Virtue Ethics and Contemporary Moral Problems. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2007, p.191-205.
51. Pojman L. Ethics: Discovering Right and Wrong, 3rd ed. USA: Wadsworth; 1999, p.166-75.
52. Khazaei Z. Virtue Ethics. Tehran: Hekmat Press; 2011,p.73.[in Persian]
53. Khazaei Z. Virtue ethics. Nameh-ye-Mofid. 2001; 7(4): 41-64. [in Persian]
54. Sadeghi M. [Barrasy se didgah akhlagh mobtani bar fazilat, akhlagh mobtani bar amal va akhlagh mokamel]. Nameh-ye-Mofid. 2002; 28: 15-26. [in Persian]
55. Frankena WK. Ethics, 2nd ed. USA: Prentice-Hall; 1988, p.65.
56. Hanson SS. Moral Acquaintances and Moral Decision: Resolving Moral Conflict in Medical Ethics. Dordrecht: Springer; 2009, p.102-6.
57. Fletcher J. Situation Ethics: The New Morality. USA: Westminster John Knox Press; 1966, p.17.
58. Graber GC. Basic Theories in Medical Ethics. Health Care Ethics: Critical Issues for the 21st Century. USA: Jones and Bartlett publishers; 2004, p.523.
59. Magundayao JAM. Dispositions and skills: An argument for virtue ethics against situationism. Kritike: An Online Journal of Philosophy. 2013; 7(1): 96-114.
60. Benner P. A dialogue between virtue ethics and care ethics. Theor Med. 1997; 18(1-2): 47-61.
61. Gilligan C. In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women's Development, 2nd ed. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press; 1982.
62. Noddings N. Caring: A Feminine Approach to Ethics and Moral Education, 2nd ed. California: University of California Press; 2003.
63. Eckles RE, Meslin EM, Gaffney M, Helft PR. Medical ethics education: Where are we? Where should we be going? A review. Acad Med. 2005; 80(12): 1143-52
64. Pellegrino ED, Thomasma DC. The Virtues in Medical Practice. USA: Oxford University Press; 1993, p.176- 80.
65. Razzaghi H. [Negaresh v Iman dar tarbiat dini]. Tehran: Imam Khomeini institute for Research and Education; 2008, p.30. [in Persian]
66. Bedard L, Deziel J, Lamarche L. Social Psychology. Translated by Ganji H. Tehran: Savalan Publications; 2010, p.88-120. [in Persian]
67. Gruber PC, Gomersall CD, Joynt GM, et al. Changes in medical students’ attitudes towards End-of-Life decisions across different years of medical training. J Gen Intern Med. 2008; 23(10):1608-14.
68. Carter DD. Using attitude surveys in medical ethics research and teaching: the example of undergraduate willingness to treat HIV-infected patients. Med Educ. 1998; 32(2):121-6.
69. Schreiner U, Haefner A, Gologan R, Obertacke U. Effective teaching modifies medical student attitudes toward pain Symptoms. Eur J Trauma Emerg Surg. 2011; 37(6): 655–9.
70. Yedidia MJ, Berry CA. The impact of residency training on physicians' AIDS-related treatment practices: a longitudinal
panel study. Acad Med. 1999; 74(5): 532 -8
71. Akbarian SM. The theory of faith for stopping the gap between knowledge and faith. Pazhuhesh Name-e Akhlaq. 2012; 5(17): 101-20. [in Persian]
72. Vejdani F, Imani M, Akbarian R, Sadeqzadeh A. An analytical study on the gap between theory and action in Allamah Tabatabaei. Pazhuhesh Name-e Akhlaq. 2013; 5(18):7-25.[in Persian]
73. Niebuhr R. Moral man and immoral society: a study in ethics and politics. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons; 1932:4-9.
74. Kadivar P. Psychology of Morality. Tehran: Agah Publication; 2010:86-8. [in Persian]
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| Issue | Vol 10 (2017) | |
| Section | Original Article(s) | |
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| Medical education Virtue ethics Moral emotions | ||
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How to Cite
1.
Madani M, Larijani B, Madani E, Ghasemzadeh N. Establishment of medical education upon internalization of virtue ethics: bridging the gap between theory and practice. J Med Ethics Hist Med. 2017;10.
